Your questions cover a wide range of topics related to corporate structure, taxation, and business strategies. Here are the answers based on general principles and common practices in U.S. corporate law and tax regulations. However, for specific and personalized advice, it's always best to consult with a corporate attorney and a tax advisor.

1. **Tax on Stockpiled Income**: Income retained by a corporation is subject to corporate income tax. However, accumulated earnings beyond a reasonable business need may be subject to an additional Accumulated Earnings Tax (AET).

2. **Upper Limit to Stockpile**: There is no strict upper limit to the amount of cash a company can stockpile, but excessive accumulation without a reasonable business purpose can trigger the AET.

3. **Hostile Takeover Risk**: Having a large cash reserve can make a company a target for hostile takeovers. Not selling shares publicly reduces the risk, but internal governance and protective measures (e.g., poison pills) are essential.

4. **Initial Valuation Calculation**: The initial valuation is typically based on the company’s assets, business plan, market conditions, and projections. Valuations are often performed by financial experts.

5. **Reasonable Number of Shares**: Many companies start with a large authorized share count (e.g., 1,000,000 shares) to provide flexibility for future issuance. The number of issued shares can be adjusted based on capital needs.

6. **Initial Stock Value Limits**: There is no minimum or maximum value for initial stock issuance, but the valuation should reflect the company's financial state and comply with fair market value principles to avoid IRS scrutiny.

7. **Life Insurance Premiums**: A C corporation can pay life insurance premiums on executives. Premiums for key person insurance are generally not tax-deductible if the corporation is the beneficiary.

8. **Type of Life Insurance**: Corporate-owned life insurance (COLI), including cash value deferred payout (CVDP), can be used, but tax deductibility depends on the policy structure and the company's interest in the policy.

9. **Increasing Business Costs**: Common strategies include accelerating expenses, increasing employee benefits, and investing in business infrastructure. These must be legitimate business expenses.

10. **Corporate Retreat Deductibility**: Costs for corporate retreats are generally deductible if they serve a clear business purpose. The deduction rate follows the general rules for business expenses.

11. **Meeting Cost Deductibility**: Most costs associated with corporate meetings are deductible if they are ordinary, necessary, and directly related to the business. Potential danger areas include extravagant or personal expenses.

12. **W2 Employees**: C corporations typically have W2 employees for payroll and tax reporting purposes. However, contractors can also be used where appropriate.

13. **Health Insurance Deductibility**: Health insurance premiums are generally 100% deductible for C corps. For S corps and LLCs, the rules can vary based on the structure and the treatment of owner-employees.

14. **Resolution Filing Frequency**: Corporate resolutions are generally required annually, but special resolutions may be necessary for significant corporate actions.

15. **Preserving Privacy**: Using nominee services, forming corporations in states with strong privacy protections (e.g., Delaware, Nevada), and structuring ownership through layers of entities can help preserve privacy.

16. **Role of Nominees**: Nominees act as placeholder officers, directors, or shareholders, but they typically do not have active roles in the business. They provide a layer of privacy.

17. **Liability Protection**: Properly structured corporations (C corps, S corps, LLCs) generally protect owners' personal assets from business liabilities. Personal guarantees or improper conduct can jeopardize this protection.

18. **Limiting Liquidated Damages**: Clear contract terms, limitation of liability clauses, and ensuring compliance with contract obligations can help limit liquidated damages.

19. **Formation Documents**: Typical formation documents include Articles of Incorporation (AOI), Bylaws, shareholder agreements, and initial board resolutions. NDAs and operating agreements are also common.

20. **Researching International Tax Issues**: Consulting with international tax experts, utilizing online resources (e.g., IRS, OECD), and reviewing bilateral tax treaties are ways to research international tax issues.

21. **International Tax Concerns**: If an offshore company has a U.S. presence, it may create a taxable nexus in the U.S. Consult a tax advisor to navigate these complexities.

22. **Layering C Corp and S Corp**: Using a C corp as a holding company and an S corp for operations can offer tax planning benefits but requires careful structuring to comply with IRS rules.

23. **Entity Ownership**: Yes, entities (other corporations, LLCs) can own a C corp and hold its stock, facilitating complex ownership structures and investment strategies.